Constructing the Prophetic “Other”: Medieval and Modern Polemics against Muhammad ﷺ in Western Intellectual History

Abstract

This article investigates the historical development of hostile Western representations of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ from the eighth century to the nineteenth century. Rather than viewing these polemical portrayals merely as products of historical ignorance, this study argues that they functioned as strategic "epistemic shields" designed to define and secure Christian and later secular-Western identities. The analysis traces three key historical shifts: the early Byzantine heresiological integration, the high medieval apocalyptic reframing during the Crusader and Gregorian reform eras, and the nineteenth-century secularization of these tropes within academic Islamwissenschaft. By tracing the evolution of specific recurring stereotypes—specifically regarding the Prophet’s sincerity, sensuality, and use of violence—this study demonstrates the long-term continuity of medieval polemics within modern historical-critical scholarship. Finally, drawing on the postcolonial critiques of Edward Said, Talal Asad, and Wael Hallaq, the article calls for an epistemic decolonization of the historical-critical method in the study of Islamic origins.